The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (abbreviated as FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C), is a set of laws passed by Congress in 1938 giving authority to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. A principal author of this law was Royal S. Copeland, a three-term U.S. Senator from New York. In 1968, the Electronic Product Radiation Control provisions were added to the FD&C. Also in that year the FDA formed the Drug Efficacy Study Implementation (DESI) to incorporate into FD&C regulations the recommendations from a National Academy of Sciences investigation of effectiveness of previo usly marketed drugs. The act has been amended many times, most recently to add requirements about bioterrorism preparations.

The introduction of this act was influenced by the death of more than 100 patients due to a sulfanilamide medication where diethylene glycol was used to dissolve the drug and make a liquid form(see elixir sulfanilamide disaster). It replaced the earlier Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.

Contents

The FDC Act has ten chapters:

I. Short Title

II. Definitions

• 201(f) is the definition for a food, which explicitly includes chewing gum
• 201(g) is the definition for a drug
• 201(h) is the definition for a medical device
• 201(s) is the definition of a food additive
• 201(ff) is the definition of a dietary supplement

III. Prohibited Acts and Penalties

This section contains both civil law and criminal law clauses. Most violations under the act are civil, though repeated, intentional, and fraudulent violations are covered as criminal law. All violations of the FD&C Act require interstate commerce because of the commerce clause, but this is often interpreted broadly and few products other than raw produce are considered outside of the scope of the act.

Notably, the FD&C Act uses strict liability due to the Dotterweich and Park Supreme Court cases. It is one of a very small number of criminal statutes that does.

IV. Food

There is a distinction in food adulteration between those that are added and those that are naturally present. Substances that are added are held to a stricter "may render (it) injurious to health" standard, whereas substances that are naturally present need only be at a level that "does not ordinarily render it injurious to health"

V. Drugs and Devices

• 505 is the description of the drug approval process
• 510(k) is the section that allows for clearance of class II medical devices
• 515 is the description of the (class III) device approval process

VI. Cosmetics

VII. General Authority

• 704 allows inspections of regulated entities. Inspection results are reported on Form 483.

VIII. Imports and Exports

IX. Tobacco Products

X. Miscellaneous

Food coloring

The FD&C is perhaps best known by the consumer because of its use in the naming of food coloring additives, such as "FD&C Yellow No. 6." The Act made the certification of some food color additives mandatory. Some food colorings are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA and do not require certification.

The FDA lists nine FD&C (Food, Drugs & Cosmetics) certified color additives for use in foods in the United States, and numerous D&C (Drugs & Cosmetics) colorings allowed only in drugs for external application or cosmetics. Color additives derived from natural sources, such as vegetables, minerals or animals, and artificial counterparts of natural derivatives, are exempt from certification. Both artificial and naturally derived color additives are subject to rigorous standards of safety before their approval for use in foods.

Certifiable colors

There are also "D&C" colors that are only approved for use in pharmaceuticals for external application and cosmetics.

Food additives

The FFDCA requires producers of food additives to demonstrate to a reasonable certainty that no harm will result from the intended use of an additive. If the FDA finds an additive to be safe the agency issues a regulation specifying the conditions under which the additive may be safely used.

Definition of food additive

A shortened definition of "food additive" is defined by the FDA as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristic of any food (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, or holding food; and including any source of radiation intended for any such use); if such substance is not GRAS or sanctioned prior to 1958 or otherwise excluded from the definition of food additives." The full definition,can be found in Section 201(s) of the FD&C Act, which provides for any additional exclusions.

Homeopathic medications

Homeopathic preparations are regulated and protected under Sections 201(g) and 201(j), provided that such medications are formulated from substances listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which the Act recognizes as an official drug compendium.

However, under separate authority of FTC Act, the Federal Trade Commission declared in November 2015 that homeopathic products cannot include claims of effectiveness without "competent and reliable scientific evidence." If no such evidence exists, they must state this fact clearly on their labeling, and state that the product's claims are based only on 18th-century theories that have been discarded by modern science.

Bottled water

Bottled water is regulated by the FDA as a food. The Agency has published identity standards for types of water (mineral water, spring water), and regulations covering water processing and bottling, water quality and product labeling.

Cosmetics

This Act defines cosmetics as "articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body...for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance." Under the Act, the FDA does not approve cosmetic products, but because the Act prohibits the marketing of adulterated or misbranded cosmetics in interstate commerce, it can remove cosmetics from the market that contain unsafe ingredients or that are mislabeled. The FDA can and does inspect cosmetics manufacturing facilities to ensure that cosmetics are not adulterated.

Medical devices

On May 28, 1976, the FD&C Act was amended to include regulation for medical devices. The amendment required that all medical devices be classified into one of three classes:

• Class I: Devices that do not require premarket approval or clearance but must follow general controls. Dental floss is a class I device.
• Class II: Devices that are cleared using the 510(k) process. Diagnostic tests, cardiac catheters, hearing aids, and dental amalgams are examples of class II devices.
• Class III: Devices that are approved by the Premarket Approval (PMA) process, analogous to a New Drug Application. These tend to be devices that are permanently implanted into a human body or may be necessary to sustain life. An artificial heart meets both criteria. The most commonly recognized class III device is an Automated External Defibrillator. Devices that do not meet either criterion are generally cleared as class II devices.

For devices that were marketed prior to the amendment (Preamendment devices) and were classified as Class III, the amendment obligated the FDA to review the device to either reclassify it as a Class II device subject to premarket notification, or to require the device manufacturer to undergo the premarket authorization process and prove the safety and efficacy of the device in order to continue marketing it. Notable examples of such preamendment devices are those used for electroconvulsive therapy, which the FDA started reviewing in 2011.

Premarket notification (510(k), PMN)

Section 510(k) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requires those device manufacturers who must register to notify FDA, at least 90 days in advance, of their intent to market a medical device.

This is known as Premarket Notification, PMN, or 510(k). It allows FDA to determine whether the device is equivalent to a device already placed into one of the three classification categories. Thus, "new" devices (not in commercial distribution prior to May 28, 1976) that have not been classified can be properly identified.

Any device that reaches market via a 510(k) notification must be "substantially equivalent" to a device on the market prior to May 28, 1976 (a "predicate device"). If a device being submitted is significantly different, relative to a pre-1976 device, in terms of design, material, chemical composition, energy source, manufacturing process, or intended use, the device nominally must go through a premarket approval, or PMA. This does not always happen.

A device that reaches market via the 510(k) process is not considered to be "approved" by the FDA. Nevertheless, it can be marketed and sold in the United States. They are generally referred to as "cleared" or "510(k) cleared" devices.

A 2011 study by Dr. Diana Zuckerman and Paul Brown of the National Research Center for Women and Families, and Dr. Steven Nissen of the Cleveland Clinic, published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, showed that most medical devices recalled in the last five years for “serious health problems or death” had been previously cleared by the FDA using the less stringent, and cheaper, 510(k) process. In a few cases the devices had been deemed so low-risk that they did not need FDA regulation. Of the 113 devices recalled, 35 were for cardiovascular issues. This may lead to a reevaluation of FDA procedures and better oversight.

Premarket approval (PMA)

Premarket approval (PMA) is the most stringent type of device marketing application required by FDA. Unlike the 510(k) pathway, the maker of the medical device must submit an application to the FDA and must receive approval prior to marketing the device.

The PMA application contains information about how the medical device was designed and how it is manufactured, as well as preclinical and clinical studies of the device, demonstrating that it is safe and effective for its intended use. Because the PMA requires a clinical trial it is significantly more expensive than a 510(k).

Related legislation

The Wheeler-Lea Act, passed in 1938, granted the Federal Trade Commission the authority to oversee advertising of all products regulated by FDA, other than prescription drugs.

Significant amendments and related laws

Descriptions of these can be found at the FDA's web site.

Amendments:

• Durham-Humphrey Amendment, Public Law 82-215 (October 26, 1951) created prescription-only status for some drugs
• Drug Efficacy Amendment ("Kefauver Harris Amendment") PL 87-781 (October 10, 1962)
• Vitamin-Mineral Amendment ("Proxmire Amendment") (April 22, 1976) prohibited the FDA from establishing standards to limit the potency of vitamins and minerals in food supplements or regulating them as drugs based solely on their potency.
• Medical Device Amendments of 1976 PL 94-295 (May 28, 1976)
• Infant Formula Act of 1980, PL 96-359 (October 26, 1980)
• Orphan Drug Act, PL 97-414 (January 4, 1983)
• Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, PL 98-417 (aka Hatch-Waxman) (September 24, 1984)
• Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987, PL 100-293 (August 18, 1988)
• Generic Animal Drug and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1988, PL 100-670 (November 16, 1988)
• Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990, PL 101-535 (November 8, 1990)
• Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, PL 101-629 (November 28, 1990)
• Medical Device Amendments of 1992, PL 102-300 (June 16, 1992)
• Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA) of 1992, PL 102-571 (October 29, 1992)
• Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA) of 1994, PL 103-396 (October 22, 1994)
• Dietary Supplement Health And Education Act of 1994, PL 103-417 (October 25, 1994)
• Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, PL 104-170 (August 3, 1996)
• Animal Drug Availability Act of 1996, PL 104-250 (October 9, 1996)
• Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, PL 107-109 (January 4, 2002)
• Medical Device User Fee and Modernization Act (MDUFMA) of 2002, PL 107-250 (October 26, 2002)
• Animal Drug User Fee Act of 2003, PL 108-130 (February 20, 2003)
• Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, PL 108-155 (December 3, 2003)
• Minor Use and Minor Species Animal Health Act of 2004
• Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004, PL 108-282 (August 2, 2004)
• Generic Drug User Fee Amendment of 2012

Other laws:

• Biologics Control Act of 1902 (repealed; for historical reference)
• Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (repealed; for historical reference)
• Federal Meat Inspection Act (March 4, 1907)
• Federal Trade Commission Act (September 26, 1914)
• Filled Milk Act (March 4, 1923)
• Import Milk Act (February 15, 1927)
• Public Health Service Act (July 1, 1944)
• Trademark Act of 1946 (July 5, 1946)
• Reorganization Plan 1 of 1953 (March 12, 1953)
• Poultry Products Inspection Act (August 28, 1957)
• Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (November 3, 1966)
• The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (January 1, 1970)
• Controlled Substances Act (October 27, 1970)
• Controlled Substances Import and Export Act (October 27, 1970)
• Egg Products Inspection Act (December 29, 1970)
• Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act (January 13, 1971)
• Federal Advisory Committee Act (October 6, 1972)
• Government in the Sunshine Act (September 13, 1976)
• Government Patent Policy Act of 1980 (December 12, 1980)
• Federal Anti-Tampering Act (October 13, 1983)
• Sanitary Food Transportation Act (November 3, 1990)
• Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act (November 28, 1990)
• Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) (October 27, 1992)
• Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (November 21, 1997)
• Bioterrorism Act of 2002 (June 12, 2002)
• Project BioShield Act of 2004 (July 21, 2004)
• Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007 (September 27, 2007)
• Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 (H.R. 307; 113th Congress)Pub.L. 113â€"5 (March 13, 2013)

Comparison to state laws

Some US states have adopted the FD&C Act as an equivalent state law and will by default adopt any changes to the Federal law as changes to the state law as well.

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The opioid crisis (also called opioid epidemic) refers to the rapid increase in the use of prescription and non-prescription opioids, along with non-medical illegal opioids such as heroin. Prescription opioids include Percocet, Vicodin, Oxycodone, OxyContin and fentanyl. They are known to be addictive if overused or taken for non-medical reasons, which as led to a dramatic increase in deaths from drug overdoses.

It is now the worst drug epidemic in American history; in 2015 it surpassed annual deaths from AIDS. One commentator considers it "this generation's AIDS Crisis." It accounts for more deaths annually than either car accidents or gun violence, and has the potential of turning into a global pandemic.

In 2015 there were 52,000 American deaths from all drug overdoses. Two thirds of them, 33,000, were from opioids, compared to 16,000 in 2010 and 4,000 in 1999. The epidemic has continued to worsen: in 2016, deaths from overdoses increased over the previous year by 26% in Connecticut, 35% in Delaware, 39% in Maine, and 62% in Maryland. The governor of Maryland declared a State of Emergency in March 2017 to combat the epidemic. While CDC director Thomas Frieden has said that "America is awash in opioids; urgent action is critical."

Background

Main causes and effects

Opioid addiction has mostly been an American problem. Between 1991 and 2011, prescriptions of painkillers in the U.S. grew from 76 million to 219 million per year. Among the opioid pills prescribed are Percocet, Vicodin, Oxycodone or OxyContin. Along with that increase in volume, the potency of the opioids also increased. By 2002, one in six drug users were being prescribed drugs more powerful than morphine; by 2012 the ratio had doubled to one in three.

In the late 1990s many Americans developed chronic pain, estimated to affect around 100 million people or a third of the US population. This led to a push by drug companies and the federal government to expand the use of painkiller opioids. But when some patients continue to take the medication beyond what a doctor prescribes, whether to minimize pain or to enjoy the euphoric feelings it gives, it can mark the beginning stages of a deadly addiction. Over time, tolerance develops and a person needs to use more to get the same effect. Dependence, or addiction, occurs when a person relies on the drug to prevent withdrawal symptoms.

To remedy that growth, in 2010 the government began cracking down on pharmacists and doctors who were over-prescribing opioid pain killers. But this led to the unintended consequence of users turning to illegal heroin, an even more addictive drug, as a substitute. Some addicted patients were also being denied opioid prescriptions as doctors tried to cut back painkiller drug abuse.

In Maine, new laws were imposed which capped the maximum daily strength of prescribed opioids and which limited prescriptions to seven days. But some doctors were then concerned that patients would turn to using street drugs like heroin to extend their use of painkillers. Heroin is significantly more potent and cheaper than prescription opioids. As a result, by 2015 while deaths from prescription opioids had increased by 15% nationwide, for heroin users it had increased 23%.

Despite the increased use of painkillers, however, there has been no change in the amount of pain reported in the U.S. Nonetheless, the current opioid epidemic has become the worst drug crisis in American history. More than 33,000 people died from overdosing in 2015, nearly equal to the number of deaths from car crashes, with deaths from heroin alone more than from guns. It is also leaving thousands of children suddenly needing foster care after their parents have died from an overdose.

Fentanyl as newest opioid

Fentanyl, a newer synthetic opioid painkiller, is 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine and 30 to 50 times more potent than heroin, with only 2 mg becoming a lethal dose. Fentanyl-laced heroin has become a big problem for major cities, including Philadelphia, Detroit and Chicago. As a result, its use has caused a spike in deaths among users of heroin and prescription painkillers, while becoming easier to obtain and conceal. Some arrested or hospitalized users are surprised to find that what they thought was heroin was actually fentanyl.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), death rates from synthetic opioids, including fentanyl, increased over 72% from 2014 to 2015. In addition, it reports that the total deaths from opioid overdoses may be under-counted, since they do not include deaths that are associated with synthetic opioids that are used as pain relievers. The CDC now presumes that a large proportion of the increase in deaths is due to illegally-made fentanyl; as the cause of overdose deaths do not distinguish pharmaceutical fentanyl from illegally-made fentanyl, the actual death rate could therefore be much higher than reported.

Those taking fentanyl-laced heroin are more likely to overdose because they don't know they also are ingesting the more powerful drug. In March 2017, New Jersey police arrested a person possessing nearly 31 pounds (14 kg) of fentanyl (14 kg would yield 7 million lethal doses.) Among those who died from overdosing on fentanyl is singer Prince.

Fentanyl has surpassed heroin as a killer in several locales: the CDC identified 998 fatal fentanyl overdoses in Ohio in all of 2014, which is the same number of deaths for the first five months of 2015. In Cleveland, a person was caught selling blue fentanyl pills disguised to look like doses of the milder opioid painkiller, oxycodone. The U.S. attorney for Ohio stated:

One of the truly terrifying things is the pills are pressed and dyed to look like oxycodone. If you are using oxycodone and take fentanyl not knowing it is fentanyl, that is an overdose waiting to happen. Each of those pills is a potential overdose death.

While Mexican cartels are a main source of heroin smuggled into the U.S., for fentanyl, Chinese suppliers provide both raw fentanyl and the machinery necessary for its production, according to medical publication STAT. In British Columbia, police discovered a lab making 100,000 fentanyl pills each month, which they were shipping to Calgary, Alberta. 90 people in Calgary overdosed on the drug in 2015. In Southern California, a home-operated drug lab with six pill presses was uncovered by federal agents; each machine was capable of producing thousands of pills an hour.

Earlier decades

In the 1950s, while heroin addiction was known among jazz musicians, it was still fairly unknown by average Americans, many of whom saw it as a frightening condition. That fear extended into the 1960s and 1970s, although it became common to hear or read about drugs such as marijuana and psychedelics, which were widely used at rock concerts like Woodstock. But heroin and opioid addiction began to make the news when famous people such as Janis Joplin, John Belushi, Jim Morrison and Lenny Bruce, whom most people didn't know were addicted, died from overdoses.

During and after the Vietnam war, heroin addiction grew when addicted soldiers returned from Vietnam, where heroin was easily bought. It also increased within low-income housing projects during the same time period."The Nixon White House panicked," writes Caldwell. In 1971 some congressmen released an explosive report on the growing heroin epidemic among U.S. servicemen in Vietnam; it found that ten to fifteen percent of the servicemen were addicted to heroin, which led President Nixon to declare drug abuse "public enemy number one". By 1973 there were 1.5 overdose deaths per 100,000 people.

Then followed the crack epidemic from cocaine in the mid to late 1980s. The death rate was worse, reaching almost 2 per 100,000. In 1982, Vice President George H. W. Bush and his aides began pushing for the involvement of the CIA and U.S. military in drug interdiction efforts.

In comparison, the present opioid epidemic is killing 10.3 people per 100,000. In some states it is far worse: over 30 per 100,000 in New Hampshire and over 40 in West Virginia. And with the ongoing opioid epidemic, opinions about drug abuse have changed. The arguments about heroin and opioid use, once supported by strong moral codes, whether social, cultural, or legal, have become weaker.

Increasing international scope

Opioid addiction is also now a serious problem outside the U.S., mostly among young adults. The majority of deaths worldwide from overdoses were from either medically prescribed opioids or illegal heroin. In Europe, prescription opioids accounted for three-quarter of overdose deaths among those between ages 15 and 39. Some now worry that the epidemic could become a worldwide pandemic if not curtailed.

That concern not only relates to the drugs themselves, but to the fact that in many countries doctors are less trained about drug addiction, both about its causes or treatment. Silvia Martins, an epidemiologist at Columbia University, explains:

Once pharmaceuticals start targeting other countries and make people feel like opioids are safe, we might see a spike [in opioid abuse]. It worked here. Why wouldn’t it work elsewhere?

Demographics

Perscription drug abuse among teenagers in Canada, Australia and Europe were at rates comparable to U.S. teenagers. In the Middle East countries of Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and in parts of China, surveys found that one in ten students had used prescription painkillers for non-medical purposes. Similar high rates of non-medical use were found among the young throughout Europe, including Spain and Great Britain.

In the U.S., addiction and overdose victims are mostly white and working-class. Geographically, those living in rural areas of the country have been the hardest hit as a percentage of the national population.

There has also been a difference in the number of prescriptions written by doctors in different states. In Hawaii, doctors wrote about 52 prescriptions for every 100 people, whereas in Alabama, they wrote almost 143 prescriptions per 100 people. Researchers suspect that the variation results from a lack of consensus among doctors in different states about how much pain medication to prescribe. Nor does a higher rate of prescription drug use lead to better health outcomes or patient satisfaction, according to studies.

Governmental measures

During a joint address to Congress in late February 2017, President Trump pledged to stop the flow of illegal drugs entering the country from Mexico. "Our terrible drug epidemic will slow down and ultimately stop," he promised. He also said the government would expand treatment for addicts. Others, such as Chelsea Clinton, agrees that there is an opioid epidemic and notes that 80% to 90% of those who need treatment for addiction don’t get it. The human cost of addiction and overdose in 2013 was costing an estimated at $78.5 billion each year.

Because drug smuggling is highly profitable and drugs are easily hidden, some experts are concerned that stopping drug smuggling will prove to be extremely difficult. They have been smuggled by various methods, such as being hidden in cars and trucks. Smugglers have also used boats, tunnels, drones, submarines, and homemade bazookas to get them across the border.

As the number of opioid prescriptions between 1991 and 2011 rose by 300%, drug cartels began flooding the United States with heroin. For opioid users, it made heroin cheaper, more potent, and often easier to acquire than prescription medications. That easier accessibility became one of the main factors leading many to using heroin.

The number of heroin users in the U.S. aged 12 or older has nearly tripled since 2002, with heroin overdose death rates more than tripling since 2010. According to the State Department: "Unless countries that are sources of production put resources towards fighting these illicit crops and those responsible for their spread, heroin and opioids will continue to fuel corruption, lawlessness, and public health crises worldwide."

Mexico is considered the main supplier to the U.S. market of heroin, methamphetamine, and marijuana, with most heroin consumed in the United States produced from opium poppies grown in Mexico. Mexican heroin production increased over 600% in four years, from an estimated 8 metric tons in 2005 to 50 metric tons in 2009. And between 2010 and 2014, the amount seized at the border more than doubled.

In Maryland, as an urgent response to the crisis, Governor Larry Hogan, on March 1, 2017, declared a State of Emergency to combat the rapid increase in overdoses. The declaration would increase and speed up coordination between the state and local jurisdictions. In 2016 approximately 2,000 people in the state had died from opioid overdoses.

Local governments are also becoming involved in trying to control their opioid crisis. Officials in Everett, Washington filed a lawsuit against the manufacturer of OxyContin, a leading opioid pain medication, claiming the manufacturer was negligent for allowing drugs to be illegally trafficked to residents and failing to prevent it. The city wants the company to pay the costs of handling the crisis.

The U.S. Surgeon General has listed some statistics which describe the extent of the problem:

• 78 Americans die every day from an opioid overdose.
• In 2014, more than 10 million people in the United States reported using prescription opioids for nonmedical reasons, and close to 2 million people older than 12 years met diagnostic criteria for a substance use disorder involving prescription opioids.
• There has been a quadrupling of prescriptions for opioids since 1999, but there has not been an overall change in the amount of pain that Americans report.
• As many as one in four patients receiving long-term opioid therapy in a primary care setting struggles with addiction.

Efforts to reduce abuse

In 2011, the Obama administration released a white paper describing the administration's plan to deal with the crisis. The administration's concerns about addiction and accidental overdosing have been echoed by numerous other medical and government advisory groups around the world.

As of 2015, prescription drug monitoring programs exist in every state but one. These programs allow pharmacists and prescribers to access patients’ prescription histories in order to identify suspicious use. However, a survey of US physicians published in 2015 found that only 53% of doctors used these programs, while 22% were not aware that the programs were available to them. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) was tasked with establishing and publishing a new guideline, and was heavily lobbied.

In 2016, the CDC published its Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain, recommending that opioids only be used when benefits for pain and function are expected to outweigh risks, and then used at the lowest effective dosage, with avoidance of concurrent opioid and benzodiazepine use whenever possible. Silvia Martins, an epidemiologist at Columbia University, has suggested getting out more information about the risks:

The greater “social acceptance” for using these medications (versus illegal substances) and the misconception that they are “safe” may be contributing factors to their misuse. Hence, a major target for intervention is the general public, including parents and youth, who must be better informed about the negative consequences of sharing with others medications prescribed for their own ailments. Equally important is the improved training of medical practitioners and their staff to better recognize patients at potential risk of developing nonmedical use, and to consider potential alternative treatments as well as closely monitor the medications they dispense to these patients.

Famous people who died from heroin overdose

Philip Seymour Hoffman, River Phoenix, John Belushi, Janis Joplin, Lenny Bruce, Jim Morrison, Sid Vicious, Mitch Hedberg, Cory Monteith, Layne Staley, Brad Renfro, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Bradley Nowell, Dee Dee Ramone, Peaches Geldof, Elisa Bridges, Bridgette Andersen, Paula Yates, Debbie Linden, Robert Pastorelli, Robbin Crosby, Zac Foley, Tim Buckley, Hillel Slovak, Kristen Pfaff, Howie Epstein, Lucy Grealy, Mike Bloomfield, Max Cantor, Dick Twardzik, Frankie Lymon, Trevor Goddard, Jeanne Eagels, Tim Hardin, Glenn Quinn, Jimmy McCulloch, James Hayden, Megan Connolly, Robert Bingham, David Lerner, Paul Demayo, Brian Cole, Michael Cooper, Pete Farndon

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Natasha Bianca Lyonne Braunstein (born April 4, 1979), better known as Natasha Lyonne, is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Jessica in the American Pie series and her appearances in the films Everyone Says I Love You, Slums of Beverly Hills, But I'm a Cheerleader, and Blade: Trinity. She currently portrays Nicky Nichols in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, for which she received a nomination for the 2014 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series.

Early life

Lyonne was born in New York City, the daughter of Ivette Buchinger and Aaron Braunstein, a boxing promoter, race car driver, and radio host, who was distantly related to cartoonist Al Jaffee.

Lyonne's parents were both from Orthodox Jewish families, and she herself was raised Orthodox. Her mother was born in Paris, France, to Hungarian Jewish parents who were Holocaust survivors. Lyonne sometimes darkly jokes that her family consists of "my father's side, Flatbush, and my mother's side, Auschwitz." Her grandmother Ella came from a large family, but only she and her two sisters and two brothers survived, which Lyonne credits to their blonde hair and blue eyes. Lyonne's grandfather, Morris Buchinger, operated a watch company in Los Angeles. During the war, he hid in Budapest as a non-Jew working in a leather factory.

Lyonne spent the first eight years of her life living in Great Neck, New York. Then she and her parents moved to Israel, where Lyonne spent a year and a half. Her parents divorced, and Lyonne and her older brother Adam returned to America with their mother. After this move back to New York City, Lyonne attended Ramaz School, also known as The Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein Upper School of Ramaz, a private Jewish school, where Lyonne said she was a scholarship kid who took honors Talmud classes and read Aramaic. She was expelled for selling marijuana at school. Lyonne grew up on the Upper East Side, where she felt she was an outcast. Her mother then moved their family to Miami, where Lyonne graduated from Miami Country Day School. Lyonne was estranged from her father, who lived on the Upper West Side until his death in October 2014 and in 2013 was a Republican candidate for City Council for the sixth District of Manhattan. Lyonne has said she is not close with her mother and has essenti ally lived independently of her family since age 16.

Career

As a young child, Lyonne was signed by the Ford Modeling Agency. At the age of six, she was cast as Opal on Pee-wee's Playhouse, followed by film appearances in Heartburn, A Man Called Sarge, and Dennis the Menace. On working as a very young child actor, Lyonne said: "I didn’t have the best parents. I don’t think they are bad people. Even if they were ready to have children, it is kind of a wacky idea to put your child in business at six years old."

Film

When she was 16, Woody Allen cast her in Everyone Says I Love You, which led to appearances in almost 30 films over the next 10 years, including starring roles in the independent films Slums of Beverly Hills and But I'm a Cheerleader. Lyonne's other films include Detroit Rock City, Scary Movie 2, The Grey Zone, Kate and Leopold, Party Monster, and Blade: Trinity. She has also made television appearances on shows such as NBC's Will and Grace. In what is perhaps her most well known role, she appeared as Jessica in the American Pie film series.

When she was 18 years old, Lyonne used the paycheck from her work on the Woody Allen film Everyone Says I Love You to buy a small apartment near Gramercy Park. She attended New York University for a very short time, studying film and philosophy.

Since then, Lyonne has worked steadily in the New York theatre scene, as well as in film and television. Her newer film appearances include All About Evil, 4:44 - Last Day on Earth, Girl Most Likely, The Rambler, and Clutter.

Theater

Lyonne made her New York stage debut in the award-winning New Group production of Mike Leigh's Two Thousand Years. Lyonne was in the original cast of the award-winning Love, Loss, and What I Wore, a play written by Nora Ephron and Delia Ephron and based on the book by Ilene Beckerman. She received positive reviews for her performance in Kim Rosenstock’s comedy,Tigers Be Still at the Roundabout Theatre Company: "a thorough delight in the flat-out funniest role, the grief-crazed Grace, so deeply immersed in self-pity that she has cast aside any attempts at decorum."

In 2011, Lyonne was in Tommy Nohilly's Blood From a Stone, from the New Group. Lyonne participated in New Group's benefit performance of Women Behind Bars in 2012.

On working in the theater: "There’s something about theater that squashes the self-critical voices because you have to be in the moment. I’m glad that I didn’t do this before I was ready, before I was capable of showing up every day. That is not a skill set I had before."

Television

Lyonne has made guest appearances on the series Weeds, New Girl, Will and Grace, and Law & Order Special Victims Unit.

In late 2012, Lyonne was reported to be developing a TV series for Fox Television about a young girl, who, fresh out of rehab and committed to starting a new life as a sober, responsible adult, is forced to move in with her conservative brother and young family.

She is currently starring as Nicky Nichols in the critically acclaimed Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black, for which she has received positive reviews. The role is Lyonne's first television show as a series regular. She received her first Primetime Emmy nomination for the role in 2014.

In 2014, Lyonne was cast in Amy Poehler's NBC comedy pilot Old Soul, directed by David Wain. In 2016, she began voicing the character Smoky Quartz in Cartoon Network's hit show Steven Universe.

Personal life

Lyonne lives in New York City.

During the early 2000s, Lyonne experienced legal problems and was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and for incidents involving her neighbors. In 2005, she was evicted by her landlord, actor Michael Rapaport, following complaints by other tenants about her behavior.

In 2005, Lyonne was admitted to Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan under a pseudonym, suffering from hepatitis C, a heart infection, and a collapsed lung; she was also undergoing methadone treatment. In January 2006, an arrest warrant was issued for her after she missed a court hearing relating to her prior problems. Her lawyer said an emergency had arisen, but did not give details. Later that year, Lyonne was admitted to the Caron Foundation, a drug and alcohol treatment center, and appeared in court afterwards. A judge sentenced her to conditional discharge.

Lyonne underwent open heart surgery to correct damage caused by her heart infection. She recovered from the surgery, and discussed her past health problems on The Rosie Show in March 2012.

She has been in a relationship with Saturday Night Live alum Fred Armisen since 2014.

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

Learn more »

Natasha Bianca Lyonne Braunstein (born April 4, 1979), better known as Natasha Lyonne, is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Jessica in the American Pie series and her appearances in the films Everyone Says I Love You, Slums of Beverly Hills, But I'm a Cheerleader, and Blade: Trinity. She currently portrays Nicky Nichols in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, for which she received a nomination for the 2014 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series.

Early life

Lyonne was born in New York City, the daughter of Ivette Buchinger and Aaron Braunstein, a boxing promoter, race car driver, and radio host, who was distantly related to cartoonist Al Jaffee.

Lyonne's parents were both from Orthodox Jewish families, and she herself was raised Orthodox. Her mother was born in Paris, France, to Hungarian Jewish parents who were Holocaust survivors. Lyonne sometimes darkly jokes that her family consists of "my father's side, Flatbush, and my mother's side, Auschwitz." Her grandmother Ella came from a large family, but only she and her two sisters and two brothers survived, which Lyonne credits to their blonde hair and blue eyes. Lyonne's grandfather, Morris Buchinger, operated a watch company in Los Angeles. During the war, he hid in Budapest as a non-Jew working in a leather factory.

Lyonne spent the first eight years of her life living in Great Neck, New York. Then she and her parents moved to Israel, where Lyonne spent a year and a half. Her parents divorced, and Lyonne and her older brother Adam returned to America with their mother. After this move back to New York City, Lyonne attended Ramaz School, also known as The Rabbi Joseph H. Lookstein Upper School of Ramaz, a private Jewish school, where Lyonne said she was a scholarship kid who took honors Talmud classes and read Aramaic. She was expelled for selling marijuana at school. Lyonne grew up on the Upper East Side, where she felt she was an outcast. Her mother then moved their family to Miami, where Lyonne graduated from Miami Country Day School. Lyonne was estranged from her father, who lived on the Upper West Side until his death in October 2014 and in 2013 was a Republican candidate for City Council for the sixth District of Manhattan. Lyonne has said she is not close with her mother and has essenti ally lived independently of her family since age 16.

Career

As a young child, Lyonne was signed by the Ford Modeling Agency. At the age of six, she was cast as Opal on Pee-wee's Playhouse, followed by film appearances in Heartburn, A Man Called Sarge, and Dennis the Menace. On working as a very young child actor, Lyonne said: "I didn’t have the best parents. I don’t think they are bad people. Even if they were ready to have children, it is kind of a wacky idea to put your child in business at six years old."

Film

When she was 16, Woody Allen cast her in Everyone Says I Love You, which led to appearances in almost 30 films over the next 10 years, including starring roles in the independent films Slums of Beverly Hills and But I'm a Cheerleader. Lyonne's other films include Detroit Rock City, Scary Movie 2, The Grey Zone, Kate and Leopold, Party Monster, and Blade: Trinity. She has also made television appearances on shows such as NBC's Will and Grace. In what is perhaps her most well known role, she appeared as Jessica in the American Pie film series.

When she was 18 years old, Lyonne used the paycheck from her work on the Woody Allen film Everyone Says I Love You to buy a small apartment near Gramercy Park. She attended New York University for a very short time, studying film and philosophy.

Since then, Lyonne has worked steadily in the New York theatre scene, as well as in film and television. Her newer film appearances include All About Evil, 4:44 - Last Day on Earth, Girl Most Likely, The Rambler, and Clutter.

Theater

Lyonne made her New York stage debut in the award-winning New Group production of Mike Leigh's Two Thousand Years. Lyonne was in the original cast of the award-winning Love, Loss, and What I Wore, a play written by Nora Ephron and Delia Ephron and based on the book by Ilene Beckerman. She received positive reviews for her performance in Kim Rosenstock’s comedy,Tigers Be Still at the Roundabout Theatre Company: "a thorough delight in the flat-out funniest role, the grief-crazed Grace, so deeply immersed in self-pity that she has cast aside any attempts at decorum."

In 2011, Lyonne was in Tommy Nohilly's Blood From a Stone, from the New Group. Lyonne participated in New Group's benefit performance of Women Behind Bars in 2012.

On working in the theater: "There’s something about theater that squashes the self-critical voices because you have to be in the moment. I’m glad that I didn’t do this before I was ready, before I was capable of showing up every day. That is not a skill set I had before."

Television

Lyonne has made guest appearances on the series Weeds, New Girl, Will and Grace, and Law & Order Special Victims Unit.

In late 2012, Lyonne was reported to be developing a TV series for Fox Television about a young girl, who, fresh out of rehab and committed to starting a new life as a sober, responsible adult, is forced to move in with her conservative brother and young family.

She is currently starring as Nicky Nichols in the critically acclaimed Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black, for which she has received positive reviews. The role is Lyonne's first television show as a series regular. She received her first Primetime Emmy nomination for the role in 2014.

In 2014, Lyonne was cast in Amy Poehler's NBC comedy pilot Old Soul, directed by David Wain. In 2016, she began voicing the character Smoky Quartz in Cartoon Network's hit show Steven Universe.

Personal life

Lyonne lives in New York City.

During the early 2000s, Lyonne experienced legal problems and was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and for incidents involving her neighbors. In 2005, she was evicted by her landlord, actor Michael Rapaport, following complaints by other tenants about her behavior.

In 2005, Lyonne was admitted to Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan under a pseudonym, suffering from hepatitis C, a heart infection, and a collapsed lung; she was also undergoing methadone treatment. In January 2006, an arrest warrant was issued for her after she missed a court hearing relating to her prior problems. Her lawyer said an emergency had arisen, but did not give details. Later that year, Lyonne was admitted to the Caron Foundation, a drug and alcohol treatment center, and appeared in court afterwards. A judge sentenced her to conditional discharge.

Lyonne underwent open heart surgery to correct damage caused by her heart infection. She recovered from the surgery, and discussed her past health problems on The Rosie Show in March 2012.

She has been in a relationship with Saturday Night Live alum Fred Armisen since 2014.

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

Learn more »

Learn more »

Love & Other Drugs is a 2010 American erotic romantic comedy-drama film, written and directed by Edward Zwick and based on the non-fiction book Hard Sell: The Evolution of a Viagra Salesman by Jamie Reidy. The film stars Jake Gyllenhaal and Anne Hathaway, who originally starred together in Brokeback Mountain. Oliver Platt, Hank Azaria, Josh Gad and Gabriel Macht also star. The film was released in the United States on November 25, 2010, received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $102 million.

Plot

In 1996, Jamie Randall (Jake Gyllenhaal) is fired from a Pittsburgh electronics store for having sex with his manager's girlfriend. His wealthy brother Josh (Josh Gad) announces at the dinner table at their parents' (George Segal and Jill Clayburgh) house that he has found Jamie a job as a pharmaceutical sales representative. After attending a Pfizer training program where he has sex with the instructor (Kate Jennings Grant), Jamie goes to work for the company and tries to get doctors to prescribe Zoloft and Zithromax. He is rebuffed, much to the dismay of his regional manager, Bruce (Oliver Platt), who sees Jamie as his ticket to the "big leagues" of Chicago. Bruce says if Jamie can get Dr. Knight (Hank Azaria) to prescribe Zoloft instead of Prozac, other doctors will follow his lead. Jamie tries to get access to Dr. Knight by hitting on his female employees until, exasperated, Dr. Knight unethically permits him to observe him at work, during which time he accidentally sees a dis robing patient, Maggie Murdock (Anne Hathaway), who suffers from early onset Parkinson's disease.

Jamie angles a date with Maggie, who has sex with him. Jamie is later beaten up by top-selling Prozac rep Trey Hannigan (Gabriel Macht), one of Maggie's ex-lovers, who warns him to stay away from her and the doctors. That night, Jamie is unable to get an erection. Maggie teasingly says he should use the new erectile dysfunction drug that his company has developed. Bruce confirms that such a drug, to be called Viagra, is about to be marketed. Jamie soon starts selling Viagra, an instant success. Jamie wants a committed relationship, but Maggie refuses. Jamie confronts her while she helps senior citizens onto a bus bound for Canada to get cheap prescription drugs, and they get into an argument.

Two days later, after he waits the night before at the bus stop in his car, he greets her back. Maggie is touched that he waited, and they resume their relationship. Jamie spends nights at Maggie's apartment. One night, he tells Maggie that he loves herâ€"the first time he has ever said that to anyoneâ€"and has a panic attack. Maggie calms him by saying she "said 'I love you' to a cat once". Jamie catches his brother masturbating to a sex tape that he and Maggie had recorded. Jamie asks her to go to a Chicago medical conference with him. She ends up at a Parkinson's discussion group across the street, and is moved by the people and their stories. Jamie meets a man whose wife is in the final stages of the disease, and asks for advice about Maggie. The man tells him to run.

After the convention, Maggie tells him how much she loves him. Jamie starts researching Parkinson's, and takes Maggie to different specialists around the country to have tests done. Jamie becomes angry and upset when he arrives at an appointment, to find out it has been rescheduled after they had flown in to see the doctor. Maggie sees that Jamie can only love her if there's a hope that one day there will be a cure, and decides to break up with him.

Then Jamie gets invited to a pyjama party with his brother by Dr. Knight and ends up having a threesome with two girls. Jamie wakes up with a rare reaction from taking Viagra and he goes to the hospital. Some time later, Jamie goes to a restaurant and runs into Maggie, who is on a date. Bruce shows up and reveals Jamie has been promoted to the Chicago office. While packing to move to Chicago, Jamie finds the videotape recorder where he taped himself and Maggie talking about life. Jamie realizes he wants to be with Maggie, but her boss tells him she has left for Canada to obtain drugs. Jamie flags down her bus and tells her that she makes him a better person, and that he loves and needs her. She starts to cry and says she will need him more. Jamie decides not to take the job in Chicago, but instead he attends medical school and stays with Maggie.

Cast

• Jake Gyllenhaal as Jamie Randall
• Anne Hathaway as Maggie Murdock
• Oliver Platt as Bruce Winston
• Hank Azaria as Dr. Stan Knight
• Josh Gad as Josh Randall
• Gabriel Macht as Trey Hannigan
• Judy Greer as Cindy
• George Segal as Dr. James Randall
• Jill Clayburgh as Nancy Randall
• Nikki DeLoach as Christy
• Katheryn Winnick as Lisa
• Natalie Gold as Dr. Helen Randall
• Michael Chernus as Jerry
• Jaimie Alexander as Carol (uncredited)
• Anthony Mannella as Sam the lab technician (uncredited)

Production

Filming

Principal photography began in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania region on September 21, 2009. The city was chosen for its atmosphere, rich medical history, the state's tax incentive program for film productions, and the area's experienced crews. Pittsburgh suburbs such as McCandless, Squirrel Hill, Fox Chapel, Sewickley, Aliquippa, and Brownsville have been used as locations for the film, as well as Mellon Arena, Jane Street in the South Side between 17th and 18th streets, the Omni William Penn Hotel, The Capital Grille, and Station Square. Pittsburgh doubled as Chicago for some scenes. The studio was in a building that had been a limousine car park.

The scene in the beginning of the film where Gyllenhaal's character works in the audio/video store was shot at the former Don Allen Car Dealership located on Baum Blvd and S. Atlantic Avenue where the East End neighborhoods of Shadyside, Friendship and Bloomfield intersect. The building has since been demolished as of 2014.

A section of the Mon-Fayette Expressway (Pennsylvania Route 43) in suburban Washington County was used for scenes on November 15â€"16, delaying traffic. A helicopter was used for filming and 40 to 50 vehicles were brought in for the shoot. Trailers and tents were set up on the campus of Ringgold High School while filming took place on the Expressway. An area was set aside for actors waiting to film their scenes.

In preparing for the film, Hathaway credits the work of Kate Winslet and Penélope Cruz, two actresses "whose work [she] returned to a lot in preparation" for Love and Other Drugs; she believes both have "done nudity with a tremendous amount of sensitivity and dignity". She identified one of her favorite Cruz films, Abre Los Ojos, as work that helped her greatly for her role. Like Gyllenhaal, Hathaway had final cut over those scenes, using it to cut five seconds where she thought "the camera lingered a little bit". Hathaway said that she did not believe her nudity in the film would put off socially conservative people who would otherwise see the film, saying "just because nudity is such a contentious issue in America people believe that they automatically alienate the conservative parts of America by having nudity. But I give the American public more credit than that. I think that people are curious and people do love love stories. I think people might find it and li ke it, even though it is a little bit risky."

Release

Critical response

Love and Other Drugs received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 49% based on 161 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It's a pleasure to see Hollywood produce a romance this refreshingly adult, but Love and Other Drugs struggles to find a balance between its disparate plot elements." Metacritic gave the film a score of 55 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it two and a half stars out of four, stating that it "obtains a warm, lovable performance from Anne Hathaway and dimensions from Jake Gyllenhaal that grow from comedy to the serious". Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review. He stated, "The energy is far too greatâ€"manic evenâ€"at the beginning but calms down for a while to focus on the highly competitive but not always ethical arena of drug sales, then gets distracted by unusually bold sex scenes for a studio picture only to wander off into the cultural phenomenon of Viagra before the movie decides it's a romance after all and so concludes in a highly conventional final embrace." Another reviewer found the film to be a "run-of-the-mill Hollywood love story".

Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review, stating "Zwick is thankfully much more of a grown-up now in dealing with relationship entanglements. Somehow, between the epic and the intimate, between Hathaway and Gyllenhaal, love doesn't come easy, but with Love & Other Drugs, at least you don't have to wait." Mary Pols of Time stated, "Since American movies tend to be prudish about sex, especially having bona fide stars appear to do it onscreen, Love & Other Drugs' desire to thoroughly acquaint us with a topless Anne Hathaway and a bottomless Jake Gyllenhaal is a welcome change." James Berardinelli, film critic for ReelViews, praised the film and its story, giving it three and a half stars out of four. He wrote, "The first thing one notices about Love and Other Drugs is that it's an adult romance. So many current love stories are targeted at teenagers that it's rare to find one that sidesteps the numerous contriv ances that permeate the genre."

Box office

Love and Other Drugs was released on November 24, 2010, and opened in 2,455 theaters in the United States, grossing $2,239,489 on its opening day and $9,739,161 in its opening weekend, ranking No. 6 with a per theater average of $3,967. On its second weekend, it remained No. 6 and grossed $5,652,810â€"$2,300 per theater. By its third weekend it dropped down to No. 8 and made $2,981,509â€"$1,331 per theater.

The film barely broke even at home with a domestic total gross of $32,367,005 as opposed to a production budget of $30 million. It fared much better overseas where it grossed $70,453,003.

Accolades

References

External links

• Love and Other Drugs at the Internet Movie Database
• Love and Other Drugs at AllMovie
• Love and Other Drugs at The Numbers

Learn more »

Kate Moss (born 16 January 1974) is an English model. Born in Croydon, Surrey, she was discovered in 1988 at age 14 by Sarah Doukas, founder of Storm Model Management, at JFK Airport in New York City.

Arriving at the end of the "supermodel era", Moss rose to fame in the early 1990s as part of the heroin chic fashion trend. Her collaborations with Calvin Klein brought her to fashion icon status. She is known for her waifish figure, and role in size zero fashion. She received an award at the 2013 British Fashion Awards to acknowledge her contribution to fashion over 25 years. Moss is also a contributing fashion editor for British Vogue.

Moss has had her own clothing range and has been involved in musical projects. She has won accolades for modelling. In 2007, TIME named her one of the world's 100 most influential people. She has inspired cultural depictions including a £1.5m ($2.8m) 18 carat gold statue of her, sculpted in 2008 for a British Museum exhibition.

She began dating Jefferson Hack in the early 2000s and they have a daughter. She later dated musician Pete Doherty. She is married to Jamie Hince, guitarist for the Kills. She received media scrutiny for her party lifestyle and drug use. Drug allegations beginning in late 2005 led to her being dropped from fashion campaigns. She was cleared of charges and resumed modelling. In 2012, she came second on the Forbes top-earning models list, with estimated earnings of $9.2 million in one year.

Early life

Moss was born in Croydon, Greater London, the daughter of Linda Rosina (Shepherd), a barmaid, and Peter Edward Moss, an airline employee, and grew up in the Addiscombe area of the borough. She has a younger brother, Nick, and a half-sister named Lottie (Charlotte). Moss's parents divorced when she was 13. She attended Ridgeway Primary School and Riddlesdown Collegiate, formerly known as Riddlesdown High School, in Purley.

Career

Beginnings and heroin chic

Moss was discovered in 1988 at 14 by Sarah Doukas, founder of Storm Model Management, at JFK Airport in New York, after a holiday in the Bahamas. Corinne Day shot black-and-white photographs of her, styled by Melanie Ward, for The Face when she was 16, in a shoot titled "The 3rd Summer of Love". Day discovered Moss when she was a young and unknown and described the pictures as 'dirty realism' or 'grunge'. Moss then featured in the Levi's campaign 'Levis for Girls', with great success, set up by The Design Corporation and again shot by Corinne Day. A further shoot followed for The Face, by Tony Briggs, entitled "Haute Coiffure", Moss went on to become the "anti-supermodel" of the 1990s in contrast to the models of the moment, such as Cindy Crawford, Elle Macpherson, Claudia Schiffer and Naomi Campbell, who were known for curvaceous and tall figures.

Moss featured in the fashion look heroin chic in 1996 (which prompted speculation over her weight) with a campaign for Calvin Klein. Bill Clinton spoke out against the trend. Moss said, "It was just the time. It was a swing from more buxom girls like Cindy Crawford and people were shocked to see what they called a 'waif'. What can you say? How many times can you say 'I'm not anorexic'?"

Controversy and return to prominence

On 20 September 2005, the Swedish fashion retailer H&M dropped her from its campaign of autumn clothes designed by Stella McCartney because of drug allegations. The contract was reportedly worth £4 million a year. A day later, Chanel said it would not renew its contract with Moss, which was to expire that October, although its decision had nothing to do with the drug scandal. Burberry dropped Moss's campaign with them. Moss apologised, though stopped short of admitting drug use.

Moss appeared in ad campaigns for Dior. She was on the cover of the November 2005 W and also inside in a multi-page fashion shoot. She was defended by designer Alexander McQueen, who, during his walk-out after a fashion show, wore a T-shirt saying "We love you Kate". Artist Stella Vine also supported Moss, and paintings by Vine, painted during the scandal, were exhibited and reproduced in the press.

On 5 January 2006, the London Metropolitan Police asked Moss to return from the U.S. to Britain to answer questions about the September 2005 cocaine scandal. On 16 June 2006, British police dropped the charges for lack of evidence. Ultimately, Moss was cleared of all charges and resumed her modelling career. In 2015 Moss was escorted off an Easyjet flight by police after she became disruptive.

Moss has been featured in ad campaigns with Chanel, Balenciaga, Burberry, Stuart Weitzman, Versace, Rag and Bone, Alexander Wang, David Yurman, Givenchy, Roberto Cavalli, Kerastase, Isabel Marant, Yves Saint Laurent, Dior, Gucci, Dolce & Gabbana, Calvin Klein, Alexander McQueen, Equipment, Rimmel, and Bulgari. She has been on the cover and in fashion spreads for most magazines including UK, US, and French Vogue (as well as other international versions of Vogue), Another Man, Harper's Bazaar, Vanity Fair, the Face, and W. She has been on the cover of British Vogue 30 times, shot the inaugural covers for both Russian Vogue with Amber Valletta and Japanese Vogue, in addition to dozens of other international Vogue covers.

Moss has been on the cover of 17 issues of W, including one with nine different covers that featured her. W named Moss its muse (September 2003 issue). Moss has also featured on the inaugural covers of Numéro, Numéro Tokyo and Spanish L'Officiel. She has worked extensively with photographers such as Mario Testino, Mario Sorrenti, Steven Klein, Juergen Teller, Steven Meisel and Peter Lindbergh, and won the Vogue/CFDA award from the Fashion Designers of America in July 2005 as Fashion Inspiration. April 2005 saw the launch of a Rimmel London mascara TV ad featuring leather-clad Moss motorcycling through London to the rock song "Another Cold Beer" by Steven Crayn.

Twelve months after her cocaine scandal, Moss signed 18 contracts for autumn-winter 2006 including Rimmel, Agent Provocateur, Virgin Mobile, Calvin Klein and Burberry. Moss designed a collection, with Katy England, for Topshop. Moss launched a fragrance and body lotion range bearing her name in association with Coty in 2007. In November 2006, Moss was model of the year at the British Fashion Awards, the top accolade in British fashion, but the award stirred fresh controversy.

Fashion designing and later work

On 1 May 2007, clothes designed by Moss for Topshop were launched in the chain's 225 UK stores. A Moss "countdown to launch" board filled a window of the company's Oxford Street store and on 30 April Moss launched the clothing there, briefly appearing in the window modelling a red dress from the collection just before the shop opened. Topshop reportedly paid Moss £3 million. The 50 designs included clothes, bags, shoes and belts, prices from £12 for a vest top to £150 for a cropped leather jacket. Clothes included skinny jeans, one-shoulder minidresses and T-shirts with K woven into the design. In a collaboration with Coty, Moss has released four fragrances.

In early 2010, she designed handbags for Longchamp. In 2012, Moss modelled for the spring-summer collection for Supreme. Moss has been the face of the Mango since autumn 2011. In November 2012, Australian model Miranda Kerr replaced Moss for spring/summer 2013.

In January 2012, having seen Dutch illusionist Hans Klok on the BBC's The One Show, Moss recommended Stella McCartney book him for London Fashion Week the following month. It was planned that Moss, a magic fan, would be Klok's assistant, and she rehearsed three illusions, a levitation, a sawing in half and a guillotine illusion. However, she dropped out with temporary paralysis of her right arm due to a trapped nerve, and her place was taken by Alexa Chung.

Also in 2012, Moss appeared in the video of George Michael's White Light, inspired by his pneumonia. Moss performed with Naomi Campbell in the closing ceremony of the 2012 London Olympic Games on 12 August 2012.

Moss posed nude for the 60th-anniversary issue of Playboy in December 2013. That same month, she received a Special Recognition award at the British Fashion Awards to acknowledge her contribution to fashion during her 25-year career.

At the 2014 Brit Awards in February, Moss collected David Bowie's Brit Award for Best British Male, while wearing a one-piece printed "woodland creatures" costume, as worn originally by Bowie. On 30 April 2014, Moss's second collection for Topshop was unveiled. Her first collection with Topshop was a success resulting in a long-lasting relationship with the brand. The new collection is inspired by Moss's own wardrobe and is being sold in 40 countries.

Legacy

Moss was voted 9th of Maxim's "50 Sexiest Women of 1999" and 22nd in FHM's "100 Sexiest Women of 1995". Arena named her sexiest woman in its 150th issue. She was on the November 1999 Millennium cover of American Vogue as one of the "Modern Muses". In March 2007, Moss won the Sexiest Woman NME Award. In 2012 she was included on MODELS.com's 'The Supers' list.

Moss has been the subject of portraits by artists such as Lucian Freud and Chuck Close. In 2005, a painting of Moss by Freud sold for £3.93 million at Christie's. Close has taken daguerreotypes of Moss, which he has also translated into Jacquard tapestry. In October 2010, she appeared on the cover of Bryan Ferry's album Olympia. The National Portrait Gallery, London maintains seven portraits of Moss among its collections, shot by photographers including Mario Testino, Corinne Day and Sølve Sundsbø.

A £1.5m ($2.8m) 18 carat gold statue of Moss in 2008 was part of a British Museum exhibition. Entitled Siren, the 50 kg (110 lb) hollow statue was made by Marc Quinn, who described Moss as "the ideal beauty of the moment". The statue is said to be the largest gold statue to be created since the era of Ancient Egypt. Quinn had previously unveiled a painted-bronze, life-size sculpture of Moss in a contorted yoga pose, titled Sphinx.

The cello rock group Rasputina had a song entitled "Kate Moss" on their 1996 album Thanks for the Ether. It imagines Moss attempting to pontificate an intellectual platform in the context of epistemology. She has earned awards for style, including the Council of Fashion Designers of America's fashion influence award and a place on the Vanity Fair international best-dressed list. In the early part of the 21st century, she was, together with actress Sienna Miller, one of the main proponents of boho-chic. She appeared on the cover of Vanity Fair's September 2006 style issue. In recent years, she has popularised denim cutoff shorts, Ugg boots, ballet flats, Vivienne Westwood Pirate Boots, skinny jeans, waistcoat, Alexander McQueen's skull scarf, Louis Vuitton's Sprouse Leopard Cashmere Scarf, and the Balenciaga handbag.

In 2008, Moss was added to PETA's 'Worst-Dressed' Celebrities of 2008' because of her frequent use of fur. In 2012, Moss was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork â€" the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover â€" to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires. In 2013, the Belgian pop singer Stromae wrote Kate Moss into the lyrics of the song "Tous les mêmes," singing "il n'y a que Kate Moss qui est éternelle," translating into English as, "there's only Kate Moss who is eternal."

Other ventures

Moss appeared on Oasis singles "Don't Go Away" (1998) and "Fade Away" (1994), and on the Be Here Now album (1997), playing tambourine, Johnny Depp playing a guitar. She has appeared in music videos such as "Kowalski" by Primal Scream, "I Just Don't Know What to Do with Myself" by the White Stripes, "Something About the Way You Look Tonight" by Elton John, "Sex with Strangers" by Marianne Faithfull, "Love Don't Bother Me" by Stage Dolls, "Delia's Gone" and "God's Gonna Cut You Down" by Johnny Cash, and "Queenie Eye" by Paul McCartney.

She has also provided vocals for songs by Primal Scream (the 2003 version of "Some Velvet Morning"), Babyshambles ("La Belle et la Bête") and the Lemonheads ("You're a Dirty Robot"). Prior to breaking up with Pete Doherty, Moss co-wrote four songs on Babyshambles' second album Shotter's Nationâ€""You Talk", "French Dog Blues", "Baddie's Boogie", and "Deft Left Hand". In 1999, Moss played a non-musical role in the British screen comedy Blackadder: Back & Forth, appearing both as Maid Marian and as a fictional Queen of England "who looks good naked". Director and writer Richard Curtis said in the making of the video, that they wanted "the best looking woman in England" to play the role. In 2014, she made an acting cameo as herself in The Boy in the Dress.

Moss has put her name to four perfume lines. Her first one, the original, is named "Kate Moss". Other perfumes include Vintage Muse, Lila Belle and Love Blossoms.

Philanthropy

Moss supported War Child. She also designed a charm in a necklace for Wallis in 2007 in aid of Cancer Research UK and said "I am happy to give my support to help fund crucial research, as so many lives are affected by this terrible disease."

She has also helped to launch the SamandRuby charity in March 2006. The charity was started to provide funding for the education and shelter of Thai children. The SamandRuby organisation is named after a friend of Moss's, Samantha Archer Fayet, and her 6-month-old daughter Ruby Rose who were killed by the tsunami while visiting Thailand.

Moss also supports the Elton John AIDS Foundation, the Hoping Foundation, the Lucie Blackman Trust, Make Poverty History, Comic Relief and Homes of Hope. On 22 November 2006, Moss recorded an appearance in a Little Britain sketch for Comic Relief at the Hammersmith Apollo as a character called Katie Pollard, sister of Vicky Pollard played by Matt Lucas. Moss made a short film with Misery bear for the March 2011 Comic Relief event entitled "Misery Bear's Comic Relief Starring Kate Moss".

Personal life

Moss has a daughter, Lila Grace Moss-Hack, born in 2002, with Dazed & Confused editor Jefferson Hack, with whom she was in a relationship for a number of years in the early 2000s. Moss had a relationship with Libertines member Pete Doherty, first meeting him at her 31st birthday party in January 2005. On 11 April 2007, Doherty announced Moss as his fiancée during one of his concerts in London, at which Moss also performed. In July 2007, Moss and Doherty split. Moss married Jamie Hince, guitarist of The Kills, on 1 July 2011 at St Peter's Church, Southrop in Gloucestershire; she wore a dress by John Galliano.

According to Forbes, her 2004â€"2005 earnings were $5 million and her 2005â€"2006 earnings were $8 million. In 2007, with estimated earnings of $9 million, Forbes magazine named her second on the list of the World's 15 top-earning models list, behind Gisele Bündchen. She made her first appearance in the British women's Sunday Times Rich List in 2007, where she was estimated to be worth £45 million. She ranked as the 99th richest woman in Britain. In the 2009 Rich List, she was ranked as the 1,348th richest person in the UK, with a net worth of £40 million.

Bibliography

• Buttolph, Angela (2008). Kate Moss: Style. London: Century. ISBN 1-84605-429-X. 
• Collins, Laura (2008). Kate Moss: The Complete Picture. London: Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. ISBN 0-283-07063-3. 
• Fox, James (December 2012). "The riddle of Kate Moss". Cover Story. Vanity Fair. 628. Retrieved 2015-10-02. 
• Kendall, Katherine (2005). Kate Moss: Model of Imperfection. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 1-59609-033-2. 
• Moss, Kate (1997). Kate: The Kate Moss Book. New York: Universe. ISBN 0-7893-0101-6. 
• Vermorel, Fred (2007). Addicted to Love: Kate Moss (2nd ed.). London: Omnibus Press. ISBN 9781846097553. 

Filmography

• The Boy in the Dress (2014) as herself
• Ab Fab: The Movie (2016) as herself
• Zoolander 2 (2016) as herself

References

External links

• Official website
• Kate Moss Agency website
• Kate Moss at the Internet Movie Database
• Kate Moss at the Fashion Model Directory
• Kate Moss at People.com
• Voguepedia article

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